absurd (荒謬)

absurd (荒謬)

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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Let me explain why (讓我解釋為什麼)

Let me explain why (讓我解釋為什麼)

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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trade war (貿易戰，貿易戰爭)

trade war (貿易戰)

trade war (貿易戰爭)

trade war (貿易戰，貿易戰爭)

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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ultrastructure (超微細結構)

ultrastructure (超微細結構)

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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DuPont (杜邦)

DuPont (杜邦)

The Miracle of Science (科學的奇蹟)

DuPont - The Miracle of Science (杜邦 - 科學的奇蹟)

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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The Miracle of Science (科學的奇蹟)

DuPont (杜邦)

The Miracle of Science (科學的奇蹟)

DuPont - The Miracle of Science (杜邦 - 科學的奇蹟)

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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DuPont - The Miracle of Science (杜邦 - 科學的奇蹟)

DuPont - The Miracle of Science (杜邦 - 科學的奇蹟)

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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mayoral election (市長選舉)

mayoral election (市長選舉)

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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period (句號)

period (句點)

period (句號)

period (句點，句號)

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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period (句點)

period (句點)

period (句號)

period (句點，句號)

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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period (句點，句號)

period (句點)

period (句號)

period (句點，句號)

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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question mark (問號)

question mark (問號)

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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exclamation mark (驚嘆號)

exclamation mark (驚嘆號)

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PlaceholderB

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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double slash (雙斜線)

slash (斜線)

double slash (雙斜線)

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PlaceholderB

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資訊來源：

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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slash (斜線)

slash (斜線)

double slash (雙斜線)

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PlaceholderB

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資訊來源：

UrlOfInfoSource

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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hashtag

hashtag

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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request (請求)

request
請求
request (請求)
請求 (request)

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資訊來源：

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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Ray ID

Ray ID

Ray ID is a unique identifier assigned by Cloudflare to each request that passes through its network.
Ray ID 是 Cloudflare 為每個通過其網路的請求分配的唯一識別碼。

It helps Cloudflare track and diagnose issues related to specific requests.
它有助於 Cloudflare 追蹤並診斷與特定請求相關的問題。

Ray IDs are useful for debugging errors, analyzing traffic, and improving security.
Ray ID 對於除錯錯誤、分析流量以及提升安全性非常有用。

You’ll often see a Ray ID in error messages or logs when something goes wrong.
當出現錯誤時，你常會在錯誤訊息或日誌中看到 Ray ID。

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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Client IP

Client IP

Client IP refers to the IP address of the device that initiated the request to a server.
Client IP 是指發出請求到伺服器的裝置的 IP 位址。

It identifies where the request came from on the internet.
它用來識別該請求在網際網路上的來源。

Web servers and services use the Client IP to manage access, detect threats, and log activity.
網頁伺服器和服務會使用 Client IP 來管理存取、偵測威脅以及記錄活動。

Sometimes, the Client IP may be masked or altered by proxies or VPNs.
有時候，Client IP 可能會被代理伺服器或 VPN 隱藏或更改。

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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Sometimes (有時候)

Sometimes
有時候
Sometimes (有時候)
有時候 (Sometimes)

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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a direct threat (一個直接的威脅)

a direct threat
一個直接的威脅
a direct threat (一個直接的威脅)
一個直接的威脅 (a direct threat)

detect threats
偵測威脅
detect threats (偵測威脅)
偵測威脅 (detect threats)

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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detect threats (偵測威脅)

detect threats
偵測威脅
detect threats (偵測威脅)
偵測威脅 (detect threats)

a direct threat
一個直接的威脅
a direct threat (一個直接的威脅)
一個直接的威脅 (a direct threat)

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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Shi-Da Lin (林詩達)

Shi-Da Lin
林詩達
Shi-Da Lin (林詩達)
林詩達 (Shi-Da Lin)

林詩達 - 把思念託付小雨 / Send Missing to Rain (by Shi-Da Lin)

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林詩達 - 把思念託付小雨 / Send Missing to Rain (by Shi-Da Lin)
Source or References (資訊來源或是參考的資訊):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3tgyGOeLKjQ
Info cited on 2023-02-06-WD1 (資訊引用於 中華民國112年西元2023年2月6日) by 湯偉晉 (WeiJin Tang)
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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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garage (車庫)

garage
車庫
garage (車庫)
車庫 (garage)

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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Molecular Underpinning

Molecular Underpinning

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Molecular Underpinning of Treatment-Resistant Schizophrenia： A Putative Different Neurobiology from Treatment-Responsive Schizophrenia PY2025 IR95 Glutathione

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Placeholder 湯偉晉編寫的英文字典

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sphingomyelin

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Sphingolipid
神經鞘脂
Sphingolipid (神經鞘脂)
神經鞘脂 (Sphingolipid)

Sphingolipids
神經鞘脂類
Sphingolipids (神經鞘脂類)
神經鞘脂類 (Sphingolipids)

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Sphingolipids are a component of all membranes but are particularly abundant in the myelin sheath.
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sphingomyelinase

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Sphingolipid
神經鞘脂
Sphingolipid (神經鞘脂)
神經鞘脂 (Sphingolipid)

Sphingolipids
神經鞘脂類
Sphingolipids (神經鞘脂類)
神經鞘脂類 (Sphingolipids)

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Sphingolipids are a component of all membranes but are particularly abundant in the myelin sheath.
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Glutathione Synthetase Deficiency

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Glutathione conjugation

Glutathione conjugation

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2025-11-04
Glutathione conjugation - PATHWAY SUMMARY

Source or References (資訊來源或是參考的資訊):
https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pathway/Reactome:R-HSA-156590
Info cited on 2025-11-04-WD2 (資訊引用於 中華民國114年西元2025年11月4日) by 湯偉晉 (WeiJin Tang)
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Glutathione conjugation - PATHWAY SUMMARY

Glutathione S-Transferases (GSTs; EC 2.5.1.18) are another major set of phase II conjugation enzymes. They can be found in the cytosol as well as being microsomal membrane-bound. Cytosolic GSTs are encoded by at least 5 gene families (alpha, mu, pi, theta and zeta GST) whereas membrane-bound enzymes are encoded by single genes. Soluble GSTs are homo- or hetero-dimeric enzymes (approximately 25KDa subunits) which can act on a wide range of endogenous and exogenous electrophiles. GSTs mediate conjugation using glutathione (GSH), a tripeptide synthesized from its precursor amino acids gamma-glutamate, cysteine and glycine. A generalized reaction is RX + GSH -> HX + GSR Glutathione conjugates are excreted in bile and converted to cysteine and mercapturic acid conjugates in the intestine and kidneys. GSH is the major, low molecular weight, non-protein thiol synthesized de novo in mammalian cells. As well as taking part in conjugation reactions, GSH also has antioxidant ability and can metabolize endogenous and exogenous compounds. The nucleophilic GSH attacks the electrophilic substrate forming a thioether bond between the cysteine residue of GSH and the electrophile. The result is generally a less reactive and more water-soluble conjugate that can be easily excreted. In some cases, GSTs can activate compounds to reactive species such as certain haloalkanes and haloalkenes. Substrates for GSTs include epoxides, alkenes and compounds with electrophilic carbon, sulfur or nitrogen centres. There are two types of conjugation reaction with glutathione: displacement reactions where glutathione displaces an electron-withdrawing group and addition reactions where glutathione is added to activated double bond structures or strained ring systems.
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好的，WeiJin（偉晉），以下是這段關於 Glutathione S-Transferases (GSTs) 的英文與繁體中文逐句對照翻譯。
我保留了原文的專業詞彙與生化名詞，以符合學術用途。

Glutathione transferases
穀胱甘肽轉移酶
Glutathione transferases (穀胱甘肽轉移酶)
穀胱甘肽轉移酶 (Glutathione transferases)

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Glutathione S-Transferases (GSTs; EC 2.5.1.18) are another major set of phase II conjugation enzymes.
穀胱甘肽轉移酶（Glutathione S-Transferases, GSTs；EC 2.5.1.18） 是另一大類屬於第二相（Phase II）結合反應酶系的重要酵素群。

They can be found in the cytosol as well as being microsomal membrane-bound.
它們既存在於 細胞質液（cytosol）中，也以膜結合型形式附著在微粒體（microsomes）膜上。

microsome (微粒體)

gene families
基因家族
gene families (基因家族)
基因家族 (gene families)

Cytosolic GSTs
細胞質型的GSTs
Cytosolic GSTs (細胞質型的GSTs)
細胞質型的GSTs (Cytosolic GSTs)

Cytosolic GSTs are encoded by at least 5 gene families (alpha, mu, pi, theta and zeta GST) whereas membrane-bound enzymes are encoded by single genes.
細胞質型的GSTs 由至少 五個基因家族 編碼，分別為 α（alpha）、μ（mu）、π（pi）、θ（theta） 和 ζ（zeta） 類；
而膜結合型酵素則由單一基因所編碼。

Soluble GSTs are homo- or hetero-dimeric enzymes (approximately 25KDa subunits) which can act on a wide range of endogenous and exogenous electrophiles.
可溶性GSTs 為同源或異源二聚體酵素（每個亞基約25 kDa），能夠作用於多種內源性與外源性 親電子化合物（electrophiles）。

electrophile
親電子化合物
electrophile (親電子化合物)
親電子化合物 (electrophile)

electrophiles
親電子化合物
electrophiles (親電子化合物)
親電子化合物 (electrophiles)

GSTs mediate conjugation using glutathione (GSH), a tripeptide synthesized from its precursor amino acids gamma-glutamate, cysteine and glycine.
GSTs 以穀胱甘肽（GSH）作為輔基進行結合反應。
GSH 是由其前驅胺基酸 γ-谷氨酸（gamma-glutamate）、半胱胺酸（cysteine） 和 甘胺酸（glycine） 組成的三胜肽。

precursor amino acid
前驅胺基酸
precursor amino acid (前驅胺基酸)
前驅胺基酸 (precursor amino acid)

precursor amino acids
前驅胺基酸
precursor amino acids (前驅胺基酸)
前驅胺基酸 (precursor amino acids)

A generalized reaction is RX + GSH → HX + GSR.
一般反應式為：RX + GSH → HX + GSR。

Glutathione conjugates are excreted in bile and converted to cysteine and mercapturic acid conjugates in the intestine and kidneys.
穀胱甘肽結合物（GSH conjugates） 通常經由膽汁排泄，並在腸道與腎臟中被轉化為半胱胺酸結合物與巰基尿酸（mercapturic acid）結合物。

GSH is the major, low molecular weight, non-protein thiol synthesized de novo in mammalian cells.
GSH 是哺乳動物細胞中主要的、低分子量的、非蛋白質型巰基化合物（thiol），可經由體內新生合成（de novo synthesis）獲得。

As well as taking part in conjugation reactions, GSH also has antioxidant ability and can metabolize endogenous and exogenous compounds.
除了參與結合反應外，GSH 還具有抗氧化能力（antioxidant ability），能代謝多種內源性與外源性化合物。

The nucleophilic GSH attacks the electrophilic substrate forming a thioether bond between the cysteine residue of GSH and the electrophile.
具親核性的GSH 攻擊親電子性底物，在 GSH 的半胱胺酸殘基與親電子物之間形成硫醚鍵（thioether bond）。

nucleophilic
親核性的
nucleophilic (親核性的)
親核性的 (nucleophilic)

thioether bond
硫醚鍵
thioether bond (硫醚鍵)
硫醚鍵 (thioether bond)

The result is generally a less reactive and more water-soluble conjugate that can be easily excreted.
其結果通常產生反應性較低、親水性較高的結合物，能被容易排出體外。

In some cases, GSTs can activate compounds to reactive species such as certain haloalkanes and haloalkenes.
在某些情況下，GSTs 甚至能將化合物活化為具有反應性的中間物種，例如某些鹵代烷（haloalkanes）與鹵代烯（haloalkenes）。

Substrates for GSTs include epoxides, alkenes and compounds with electrophilic carbon, sulfur or nitrogen centres.
GSTs 的底物包括環氧化物（epoxides）、烯類化合物（alkenes）以及含有親電子性碳、硫或氮中心的化合物。

There are two types of conjugation reaction with glutathione: displacement reactions where glutathione displaces an electron-withdrawing group and addition reactions where glutathione is added to activated double bond structures or strained ring systems.
與穀胱甘肽相關的結合反應主要分為兩種類型：
（1）取代反應（displacement reactions）——GSH 取代親電子基團中的吸電子基（electron-withdrawing group）；
（2）加成反應（addition reactions）——GSH 加成至活化的雙鍵結構或張力環系統（strained ring systems）上。

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